To what extent should we allow L1 in the L2 classroom Free Essays

Introduction The use of a student’s first language (L1) in a second language classroom (L2) has been debated for numerous years (Morahan 2010) within the principles set by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). Many teachers have any inherent understanding that teaching in a second language is cognitively more complex than that of a first language (He 2011). Many scholars debate the importance of L1 in the L2 classroom with various arguments related to language acquisition, how the student compartmentalises the two languages within memory and L2 exposure within classes (Cook 2001). We will write a custom essay sample on To what extent should we allow L1 in the L2 classroom? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Research over the preceding decades have seen an increase in ESL in the classroom and has become a critical topic of engagement not only in school but also in a wider society (Ford 2009). Evidence has shown that writers engauge in their L1 even when approaching tasks set within their L2 (van Weijen et al. 2009). This indicates that there is integration between L1 and L2. This paper aims to examine some of the complexities faces by TESOL and students when facilitating the use (or non-use) of L1 in the L2 classroom and the extent to which we should encourage the use of L1. The relevance of L1 in the L2 classroom There is a vitally important role to be played by the L1 and L2 classroom with regard to the level of bilingualism that has arisen in the past 40 years (Milroy Muysken 1995, p.1) with ever advancing technology and connectedness of nations. Colonisation has meant that the need for individuals to be able to communicate in more than one language has become imperative within modern education. There has also been a rise in secondary languages within ethnic minorities become further deep rooted in contemporary living (Ibid). However, the argument remains as to whether children learning a second language should be able to facilitate the use of their mother tongue or if it is more beneficial for the class to only be conducted in the second language. Language acquisition has associations with the general development theories as explored by developmental psychologists such as Vygotsky and Bruner. Aspects such as the sociocultural theory of mind in second language acquisition are commonly explored (Lantolf 2000), and how language acquisition relates to current practice of L1 use in the L2 classroom. Many of the theories with regards to sociolcultural theory have a relationship with the notion that the human mind is mediated. Vygotsky argued that individuals facilitate the use of ‘tools and labor activity’ (Lantolf, 2000, p. 1) which enables us to change our understanding of the world and the way in which we exist within it. He argued that our culture played a vital role in our understanding of language and that our understanding of the mind has enabled us to partly comprehend the levels in which cognitive actions are achieved. He further argued that language enabled children to mediate the way in which they behaved. Ot her followers of sociolcultural theory in second language acquisition (SLA) relate to the concept of private speech in which students are able to construct and understand meaning of L2 with the use of internal L1 speech. They also argue that L2 grammar complexities are often easily understood when explained in L1, as L2 explanations cause some student’s difficulties with comprehension (Lantolf, 2000, p. 31). This is where we are able to see the start of the argument developing in favour of the individual’s use of L1 in the L2 classroom (even if this is not overtly used by facilitators). There are many factors that support the use of L1 in the L2 classroom alongside those which do not, and some of these shall be explored herein. The argument for L1 in the L2 classroom Tang suggests that to learn L2 is much the same as L1, with regards to extensive exposure (Tang 2002). That is; young children initially learn to speak their mother language through a process of exposure, to include modelling and repetition. At this point, the current paper could bring the issues surrounding language acquisition device as proposed by Noam Chomsky into the debate, with regards to the predominant ability to learn language at it’s strongest until approximately 4 years of age; yet the scope for this paper does not allow for such. However, it is able to give readers an idea as to why the L1 is seemingly much easier to master than that of L2 (if the beginning of L2 learning is to begin post aged 4 years). Research has highlighted that the indication of the use of L1 in the L2 classroom actually enhances comprehension of L2 by the students (Tang 2002; Cook 2001). The alternation of languages between L1 and L2 is seen as an important criterion in some classes, and even allows understanding peers to explain in L1, the task that is being described in L2 (Morahan 2010).From personal experience, although not directly related to TESOL, teaching in L1, to a variety of students whose mother tongue is L2, gives way to peer to peer learning. It is witnessed that numerous students will facilitate their own L1, to explain to other students with equal L1, the task which is being described in L2. It is assumed that this reciprocal learning allows students a deeper comprehension of the primary language in multi-lingual classes. The aforementioned experience in part relates to the notion of the ‘New Concurrent’ method (Cook 2001), in which the teacher switches between L1 and L2, yet in th e described example, it is the student who takes this new concurrent method on board and not the teacher. The method allows teachers to explain key points to students and to allow for a more concrete comprehension in L1 as opposed to the levels of comprehension seen in explanations purely in L2. Some of the more radical approaches to TESOL, is that of cognates (Van Assche et al. 2009). Cognates facilitates the use of combining both L1 and L2 in a sentence, such as ‘Franglais’, the integration of French and English into a sentence. For example, ‘Je like la creme glacee on a ete chaud day’ (I like ice cream on a hot summers day). After approximately two weeks, the teacher would primarily be speaking 50% French and 50% English, with further progression as time goes on. This is essence facilitates the use of code switching (Auer 1999a) which is discussed in more detail in the information against the use of L1 in the L2 classroom later in the paper. Research has shown that facilitating the use of cognates in the L2 classroom decreases reading times of students alongside a comprehension ability (Van Assche et al. 2009) and an increase in word recognition times. In fact, the authors of the research state that it is very difficult for student to turn off th eir dominant mother tongue and as such, expecting them to do so may be futile (Ibid). The method of cognates and the combination of the old (L1) with the new (L2) suggests that for a student to become confident in L2, there must be an acceptance of the level of use of L1 in a classroom, and in fact it should be encouraged. If we again pick up the teachings of Vygotsky with regards to the ZPD, then expecting a student to work fully in L2 may cause them to stretch beyond their boundaries of the ZPD and as such interfere with their learning process. Lantolf Poehner (2011) suggest that within the L2 classroom there should be dynamic assessment (DA), a framework based on Vygotskian theory which allows teachers to support the development in an active method of facilitation. This active support enables students to slowly creep beyond the realms of the ZPD without overwhelming them causing for frustration or incomprehension. For such a method to work there needs to be the ability of the TESOL to facilitate L1 in aiding the development of the progression of the students L2. Teacher use of L1 There are a variety of methods in which a teacher is able to facilitate the use of L1 in the classroom to enable the continuing progression of her students as cited by Atkinson (1987) such as; eliciting language, checking for students comprehension, giving out complex instructions in the most basic of levels, co-operating in groups, basic explanations of classroom methodologies, utilising translation to highlight something recently taught, checking for sense, testing and to develop circumlocution strategies, all of which become a complex tasks if they are to be described and executed in L2. Atkinson further argues that application of L1 in the classroom enables a development of fluency and argues for its inclusion. His writing came within the 1980’s, a time in which there was a general trend for exclusion of L1 and as such bore the brunt of criticism. However, his explanation with regards to how L1 is utilised in the L2 classroom was clear and left little room for justified cr iticism. Student use of L1 It is common for students in the L2 classroom, to facilitate the use of L1 in group, or pair work. The use of L1 will allow them to work and develop within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), a theory well constructed and evaluated by Vygotsky (1987) and commented on widely in second language acquisition (Escandon Sanz 2011; Compernolle et al. 2012; Lantolf Poehner 2011). The general assumption is that if students are able to facilitate L1 intermittently, then L2 students may process cognitively, at a much higher level, than if working in L2 alone. This in turn creates a higher level of understanding (Morahan 2010). Students are also seen to facilitate a concurrent method as aforementioned and this appears to have justifications for the use of L1 in the L2 classroom. The argument against L1 in the L2 classroom Research has highlighted that even since the 1880s, there has been this direct avoidance of the utilisation of L1 in the L2 classroom (Howatt Widdowson 2004). According to Howatt and Widdowson (2004, p.289); ‘†¦the monolingual principle, the unique contribution of the twentieth century to classroom language teaching, remains the bedrock notion from which others ultimately derive.’ It is within such a quote that we are able to see the opposition to the use of L1 in the L2 classroom, stating that monolingual classrooms form the basis for which the successful teaching of L2 would lay. It is a fairly common theme for many teachers and academics in the field of language acquisition, that English should be rendered almost obsolete (applicable to any L1, besides English), with many textual companions only facilitating the use of L2 within materials (Halliwell et al. 1991). With regards to the way that young children learn their first language, this follows on from the principles of exposure; that students are only spoken to in L2 and L1 is obsolete. The student has to fully engage in the class activities or they will not comprehend. It is to be expected that total L2 engagement is to speed up the process in which language is acquired, as it did for L1 Difficulties arise in classes where all students have the same L1 as the teacher and are furthermore all engaged in the learning of the same L2. Students who are having difficulties with comprehension are likely to seek assistance in L1 which may be a compelling persuasion for the teacher to respond in L1, especially when an individual student is clearly distressed with confusion. The only way in which a purely L2 classroom could be achieved would be if the teacher did not speak the students L1 and all students had different L1’s from one another; an unlikely circumstance (Cook 2001). Language compartmentalisation In the literature exists arguments that successful comprehension of L2 requires that L1 and L2 are kept separate cognitively, such that they remain distinctive systems of their own, an argument which has remained prominent since the 1950’s as ‘Contrastive Analysis’ (Lado 1957); Contrastive analysis suggests that continuous use of L2 when describing or explaining L2 terminology and language adds to the development of separate linguistical systems. It is argued that L2 should only be acquired through the use of L2 and that there should be no association with L1. The argument set by theorists with contrastive analysis was that if a student was experiencing difficulties with L2, these were likely to be linked to issues within L1, which were transferring into L2. The idea was that through pure use of L2, issues relating to perplexity could be eliminated (e.g., the confusion between English and French sentence construction could cause an English L1 student to have diffi culties with the comprehension of L2 French, due to the inherent formation structures in L1 English). However, issues are likely to arise when expecting a student to think both vocally and privately in L2. Language compartmentalisation: code-switching Code switching is the theory that students are able to have both L1 and L2 ‘online’ at a single time which means that although L2 is not facilitated by the teacher, the student is able to use a process of bilingual attention to the subject matter (Cook 2002). This is classed as a highly skilled language aptitude and is seen to require the student to be able to switch between L1 and L2 quickly and coherently. The argument here is that in everyday situations in which the student is likely to be involved, with L1 and L2, a process of code switching is most likely to be the cognitive method (Ibid). Keeping the two languages separate within teaching allows the student to become more comfortable with the ways in which they will facilitate both the interplay between L1 and L2 in conversations in L2 outside of the classroom (Stern 1992). It is highly likely that students will mediate between both L1 and L2 and as such it is almost an unfeasible task to expect the student to have internal (private) speech primarily within L2. Furthermore, it is suggested if students were to have separate cognitive functions for both L1 and L2, they would find jobs that utilise both L1 and L2 languages (interpreter/travel advisor) inherently difficult. For there to be cohesion between comprehension and production, students would need to be able to integrate both L1 and L2 in a system that allows them fluidity in their language. Code switching is explored thoroughly in the literature (Miller Amberber et al. 2009; Auer 1999b; Gardner-Chloros 2009; Milroy Muysken 1995). Research suggests that it is a common occurrence for bilingual speakers to facilitate two or more languages within one conversation which shows very little difficulty (Gardner-Chloros 2009). It is suggested that this is code switching in process. Part of the argument made with regards to code switching is that it is a very difficult aspect to study from a scientific point of view. It includes the combination of socio linguistic, grammatical, psycholinguistic and developmental aspects which are all independent in their nature. A reductionist approach would be inappropriate in this instance yet an approach from a holism viewpoint would create difficulties with the amount of data that would need to be analysed. If we are to develop the idea of real-world experience with regards to L1 in the L2 classroom, it should be understood that situations in which L2 would be facilitated would usually require the student to have little or no backup from L1 sources. The idea of the L2 classroom is to give students a sample of the type of interactions that they will face during real communication. A class in which L1 is commonly used is unlikely to be a valid example of real life bilingual speaking. This forms further support towards the arguments that L1 should be eradicated in the L2 classroom (Cook 2002). The reality of the situation is when teaching students in L2, there are numerous instances in which L1 acts as a facilitator, especially when the student is finding an aspect of L2 extremely difficult to understand. As a teacher you are obliged to help students and if continuing in L2 does not enable the student to develop a full understanding, then the entire aspect of ‘teaching’ is no longer valid. Conclusion The aim of this paper was to present arguments both for and against the use of L1 in the L2 classroom. General investigation has highlighted that ideas which relates to the complete eradication of L1 in the L2 classroom are dated and that modern approaches to L2 acquisition are more likely to include and facilitate the use of L1. Research has shown that when L1 is used alongside L2 by the TESOL, then comprehension of the L2 has increased. Some of the early theoretical foundations of language as proposed by Vygotsky with regards to the zone of proximinal development are mirrored in modern methods. The use of cognates within the L2 classroom combines both L1 and L2 and allows the student to slowly progress and comprehend how the L2 fits in with their current understanding of their L1 language. It allows the teacher to scaffold their learning and therefore enables them to progress in the most productive of manners. Although the argument against the use of L1 in the L2 classroom falls pr edominantly on the idea that L1 is not used when a student is talking in L2, in real-world situations, it is highly likely that a student will be comparing their comprehension of L2 with the underlying comprehensions of language that they of course have in L1. Facilitators of L2 curriculums must also bear in mind the relationship between peers. Students are likely to confer with one another in L1 regarding their work that they are required to complete in L2. This further supports the idea that the use of L1 in the L2 classroom allows students to make the most beneficial progression. The same is also found in classes in which the teacher has a different L1 than that of her students. The general consensus found from this paper is that L1 should be allowed in the L2 classroom. References Van Assche, E. et al., 2009. Does bilingualism change native-language readingCognate effects in a sentence context. Psychological Science, 20(8), pp.923–927. Atkinson, D., 1987. The mother tongue in the classroom: a neglected resourceELT journal, 41(4), pp.241–247. Auer, P., 1999a. Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity, Psychology Press. Auer, P., 1999b. Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity, Psychology Press. Compernolle, V., A, R. Williams, L., 2012. Promoting Sociolinguistic Competence in the Classroom Zone of Proximal Development. Language Teaching Research, 16(1), pp.39–60. Cook, V., 2002. Second language learning and language teaching. Language Learning, (25), pp.73–80. Cook, V., 2001. Using the First Language in the Classroom. Escandon, A. Sanz, M., 2011. The Bottom-up Move Within Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: A Pedagogical Application for Teaching Agreement in Spanish as a Foreign Language. RELC Journal, 42(3), pp.345–361. Ford, K., 2009. Principles and Practices of L1/L2 Use in the Japanese University EFL Classroom. JALT Journal, 31(1), p.63. Gardner-Chloros, P., 2009. Code switching. Available at: http://www3.cambridge.org/asia/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521681131 [Accessed June 9, 2012]. Halliwell, S. et al., 1991. On target: Teaching in the target language, Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research. He, A.E., 2011. Possibility of Crosslingual Transfer: A Comparative Study of Chinese (L1) and English (L2) Lessons. The Modern Language Journal, 95, pp.64–80. Howatt, A.P.R. Widdowson, H.G., 2004. A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford University Press. Lado, R., 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Lantolf, J.P., 2000. Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning, Oxford University Press. Lantolf, J.P. Poehner, M.E., 2011. Dynamic Assessment in the Classroom: Vygotskian Praxis for Second Language Development. Language Teaching Research, 15(1), pp.11–33. Miller Amberber, A. et al., 2009. Language switching and language selection in bilinguals with aphasia?: grammatical versus discourse impairment | Macquarie University ResearchOnline, Language switching and language selection in bilinguals with aphasia?: grammatical versus discourse impairment. Available at: http://www.researchonline.mq.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/mq:19004 [Accessed June 9, 2012]. Milroy, L. Muysken, P., 1995. One Speaker, Two Languages: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching, Cambridge University Press. Morahan, M., 2010. The Use of Students’ First Language (L1) in the Second Language (L2) Classroom. Stern, H.H., 1992. Issues and options in language teaching, Oxford Univ Pr. Tang, J., 2002. Using the L1 in the English Classroom. Forum, 40(1), pp.36–43. Vygotsky, Z.P.D., 1987. Zone of Proximal Development. van Weijen, D. et al., 2009. L1 use during L2 writing: An empirical study of a complex phenomenon. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(4), pp.235–250. How to cite To what extent should we allow L1 in the L2 classroom?, Essay examples

Othello as a Tragic Hero Essay Sample free essay sample

One of the most obvious focal point of dissension about Othello is whether Othello was a tragic hero or non harmonizing to the authoritative construct of a tragic hero ; whether his word picture. personal properties make him fall into the sphere of Aristotelean construct of tragic hero ; Whether or non he possessed a tragic defect. To Swinburne. Othello was â€Å"the baronial adult male of man’s making† . ( Swinburne ) But T. S. Eliot. on the other manus spoke unfavourably of his â€Å"cheering himself up† . ( 153 ) and came out with a famed critical term â€Å"Bovarysme† . Robert H. Heilman ( 1956 ) comes really close to repeating the Eliot place when he says ; â€Å"Othello is the least heroic of Shakespeare’s tragic heroes. † ( p. 166 ) The designation of Othello’stragic flawdiffers from reader to reader and from critic to critic. Some critics are of the position that inordinate Egotism and assurance of Othello remain the chief cause of his calamity. He harbors undue intuitions against Desdemona. He had a trusting nature and he is thorough in his trust of Iago. ( Bradley. 1965. p. 213. Jealousy overpowers him and he lacks self-denial. It is barely likely that even a combination of all these would be equal to what Aristotle considered to be a serioustragic flaw.and he exhibited any of the weakness mentioned above. It would barely be logical to state that the Othello was punished for offense in the yes of the Godhead. Another position is that the present weaknesss of Othello may be taken to agencies that he was he was ever like that. and his calamity comes due some built-in or unconditioned unsoundness in his character. However we get no indicant of this in the drama. The construct of the tragic hero that we gather from Aristotle’sPoeticssis that he is a extremely esteemed and comfortable adult male who falls into bad luck because of some serioustragic flawi. e. tragic defect. Aristotle gives the illustration of Oedipus and Thyestes. which means that harmonizing to him. it was Oedipus’tragic flawthat was straight responsible for his autumn. Although the significance oftragic flawis far from certain. its most frequent applications is in the sense of false moral judgement. or even strictly rational mistakes. Among Greeks no crisp differentiation between the two existed. It is by and large believed that harmonizing to Aristotle thetragic flawoff Oedipus consists in some moral mistakes and it has been tried to place assorted moral mistakes in Oedipus. Othello besides possessed these moral defect and his calamity merely comes due to these moral defects. So harmonizing to Aristotelean construct. Othello is a tragic hero as he is a larger t han life character and has tragic defects that conveying his devastation. Distinguished Professor Butcher has identified four possible scope of significance of Aristotle‘s Hamartia i. e. tragic defect. The foremost of these intensions is an mistake due to ineluctable ignorance of fortunes whereas an mistake caused by unknowingness of conditions that might hold been identified and for that ground to some extent morally blamable is another manifestation of the sense in which the termtragic flawwas used by Aristotle. The 3rd sense is â€Å"A mistake or mistake where the act is witting and knowing. but non consider. Such Acts of the Apostless are committed in choler or passion. † Where as 4th one is â€Å"A mistake of character distinct. on the one manus. from an stray mistake. and. on the other. from the frailty which has its place in the perverse will†¦a defect of character that is non tainted with a barbarous intent. † [ 1 ] This essay will seek to analyse all these manifestation of tragic defects present in the character of Othello to attest that he was a tragic hero. The character of Othello possesses an aura of personality that makes him distinguished every bit good naif and unprocessed as compared with other characters in the drama and other Shakespearian supporters. That is the exclusive ground that why he fell a quarry to Iago’s secret plan. Iago told Roderigo. â€Å"O. sir. content you. I follow him [ Othello ] to function my bend upon him â€Å" ( I. I lines 38-9 ) . Iago explains that merely follow Othello to certain extent. A fundamental guess is that as the slaying of Othello’s married woman Desdemona is the consequence of craftiness of Iago. so himself remained a victim to the evil mastermind of Iago. Othello’s wrath was a merchandise of his impulsiveness. the built-in defect in his character. but that was utilised and triggered by the intrigue of Iago. The discourtesy of Iago – to cabal the death of the Moor – is worse since it is embedded in a shrewd head with organized effort whereas the error of Othello was the consequence of his naivete . He was blindfolded by a irritant in the bosom and head. But his wickedness can non be justified merely on this land as there were assorted methods to look into the culpability. However. it can be illustrated that Othello permitted himself to be influenced by Iago’s proposition of the infidelity of Desdemona. Iago merely provides a justification that was needed by Othello. Some critics are of the position that Desdemona’s slaying is an result of Othello’s inordinate haughtiness and his impulsiveness to decision-making. A. C. Bradley ponders over the temperaments and nature of Othello and says in this respect ; â€Å"The beginnings of danger in this character are revealed but excessively clearly by the narrative. In the first topographic point. Othello’s head. for all its poesy. is really simple. He is non observant. His nature tends outward. He is rather free from self-contemplation. and is non given to contemplation. Emotion excites his imaginativeness. but it confuses and dulls his mind. On this side he is the really opposite of Hamlet. with whom. nevertheless. he portions a great openness and trustingness of nature. In add-on. he has small experience of the corrupt merchandises of civilized life. and is nescient of European adult females. † ( p. 217 ) Despite this major defect. he possessed some distinguishable personality traits. His has the capacity to construct positive and mutual relationships and to take a figure of stairss to carry. He possesses the capableness to orient an attack to appeal to the demands of a peculiar audience and an illustration of this relationship edifice is his echt company with Iago. But once more this trait of Othello is used against him as Iago takes advantage of his trust and design more evil secret plans against him. Although Othello possesses some evil leanings but he is capable of forestalling these base and evil inherent aptitudes to rule him. In order to turn up the grade and gravitation of his wickednesss. his motivations fro his evil actions must be taken into consideration. It can be argued that his wickednesss are merchandise of weak mental modules and some built-in defects in his character. It was further enhanced by the use of Iago alternatively of his pride. His action of slaying Desdemona was besides non due to lack of assurance as he was a strong leader as manifested by his ability to command military and assorted other provinces personal businesss. But his leading does non intend that he was forfeited against personal phantasies and caprices of imaginativeness. Othello’s basic quandary was that he was in a wholly new socio-cultural surroundings. He was in a new metropolis with a new bride who was graceful and immature. Furthermore. Othello was in deep love with her does non cognize her well. He was unsure about Desdemona determination to choose him as her hubby. and can merely grok one elucidation. â€Å"She lov’d me for the dangers I had pass’d. † ( I. three. 167 ) He is cognizant of the prevalent environment of bias and prejudice in Venice and without uncertainty must ask why Desdemona would against her ain norms and values and associate white Venetians by get marrieding an foreigner. All these added intuition in his heads before Iago begins his conniving secret plan. Although Desdemona was an prototype of love and attention for her. but his preconceived impressions can non enable him to believe in her love unreservedly. His response to his skeptic head is to set Desdemona on a base. doing her an â€Å"emblem of pureness and trustworthiness† ‘Tis non to do me jealous/ To state my married woman Is just. provenders good. loves company. Is free of address. sings. dramas. and dances good. / Where virtuousness Is. these are more virtuous. Nor from mine ain weak virtues will I draw/ The smallest fright or uncertainty of her rebellion. For she had eyes. and chose me. ( 3. 3. 180 ) Othello arrived at the decision that Desdemona’s consideration and virtuousness merely capacitated her to experience fondness for the unlovable — an unstable apogee arising from his low dignity. When Iago cast away this fabricated idealism with his evil designs. he is simply beef uping what Othello considers deeply to be exhaustively possible i. e. that Desdemona could love another adult male. Iago is on manus to verify Othello’s primary uncertainties: Ay. there’s the point! as ( to be bold with you ) / Not to impact many proposed matches/ Of her ain climate. skin color. and degree. / Whereto we see in all things nature tends †¦ Her will. flinching to her better opinion. / May autumn to fit you with her state signifiers. / And merrily repent. ( 3. 3. 228 ) So all these facts. statements and supported grounds clearly manifest that Othello was a lager than life character and his tragic defect contributes toward his calamity. It is both an amalgam of self-infliction and fortunes beyond his control. He is a baronial character but when things go incorrect and force per unit areas builds up. Othello’s insufficiencies are revealed like the clefts in the dike. This makes him a tragic hero harmonizing to really construct of Aristotle. A. C. Bradley refutes the point of position that Othello was non baronial and has no features of a tragic hero. He is of the position ; This character is so baronial. Othello’s feelings and actions follow so necessarily from it and from the forces brought to bear on it. and his agonies are so heart-rending. that he stirs. I believe. in most readers a passion of mingled love and commiseration which they feel for no other hero in Shakespeare. and to which non even Mr Swinburne can make more than justness. Yet there are some critics and non a few readers who cherish a score against him. They do non simply think that in the ulterior phases of his enticement he showed a certain dullness. and that. to talk pedantically. he acted with indefensible abruptness and force ; no 1. I suppose. denies that. ( p. 221 ) Mentions Bloom. Harold.William Shakespeare’s Othello. New York: Chelsea House. 1987. Bradley. A. C.Shakespearian Calamity: Lectures on Hamlet. Othello. King Lear. Macbeth. 2nd erectile dysfunction. London: Macmillan. 1905. Butcher. S. H. Aristotle’s theory of Poetry and Fine Arts. Hell and Wang: New York. 1961. Elliot. T. S. The Hero Cheering Himself Up. Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca. ED. Leonard F. Dean. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 1961. 153-155. . Heilman. Robert B. Magic in the web ; action A ; linguistic communication in Othello. Lexington. University of Kentucky Press. 1956. Shakespeare. William. Othello. Penguin Books. New York. 1993 Swinburne. A. C. A Study of Shakespeare ; Edited by Goose Edmund. Website ; lt ; lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Gutenberg. org/ebooks/16412 gt ; gt ; [ 1 ] For elaborate treatment on these manifestations of the termHamartia.delight see Aritotle’s theory of Poetry and Fine Arts by S. H. Butcher ( pp. 310-315. )

Global Strategy And Policy - Free Smaple at MyAssignmentHelp

Questions: 1) Importance of fixing or firing underperforming employees.2) Authors view on fixing or firing an employee and justification.3) Thing to remember in counseling underperforming employees and putting them on an effective performance plan.4) Ways for underperforming employees rationalize their performance.5) Three different perspective the managers consider before terminating an employee who underperform.6) Applying the lessons from the book to my own performance. Answers: 1) Importance of fixing or firing underperforming employees It has been observed that the managers of the organization may find it difficult or challenging to deal with the employees who are underperforming. In order to deal with the context, different analyses have been done. The author Steven Shaer has provided a number of strategies, theories and some practical facts in improving employees performance. It is evident that high employee turnover could hurt the bottom line of the company. In addition, Shaer (2013, p.123) commented that it could cost double of an employees salary to hire and train a new employee. Moreover, on the other hand, Shaer (2013, p.165) opined that firing an employee could damage the morality among the exiting employee of the organization. The author Steven Shaer has also stated that the cost of employee turnover for any business is always greater despite of the level of wages paid to the employees who are leaving or joining the organization. Furthermore, in order to reduce the turnover cost of the company it is essent ial for the organization to develop the workplace policies such as management support, consultation with the employees and defining the terms of policies. On the other side, there have been different reasons based on which the organization takes the initiative to fire the employees as it could be difficult to work with the employees who do not cooperate in developing organizational performance. For example, it can be stated that, there are some employees who order other employees to do their tasks. They could create difficulties for others in the workplace. In addition, the author Steven Shaer has mentioned that some of the employees within the organization could always perform poorly and they become clueless for their action. Thus, it is necessary for the organization to fix and fire employees based on the situations cropped up. 2) Authors view on fixing or firing an employee and justification On the context of firing or fixing an employee, the author Steven Shaer has been given a critical but positive opinion. The author stated pointing the managers of the organization that they have to deal with tough employees. The managers might face the situations where they have to coach the employees whose performances are not up to the standard. However, some other situations could appear where not all efforts put by the managers are enough. Thus, the best technique needs to be let the employees go rather spending more time on them. Nevertheless, the author thinks that firing an employee could tarnish the morality of other remaining employees. Moreover, it could increase the turnover rate of the organization, which in turn could damage the image of the company in the industry. Therefore, the author thinks, the organizations need to implement some motivational strategies to retain and develop the performance of the employees. The motivational strategies such providing them rewards, promotion based on performance, involving them in decision making and problem solving. The author concludes this context stating fixing an employee is better than firing the employees (Shaer, 2013, p.173). 3) Thing to remember in counseling underperforming employees and putting them on an effective performance plan In this particular context, the author has mentioned about different things such as building a relationship based on mutual trust, getting the agreement exploring alternatives, handling to excuse, proving feedback etc (Shaer, 2013, p.171).It is observed that establishment of any coaching relationship is usually rooted in managers daily contact with the staffs. Thus, it can be added that without a certain of trust implementing a better coaching meeting could be impossible as mentioned by Shaer (2013, p.11).In addition, by exploring the ways, the issues could be solved quite easily by motivating the employees in identifying alternative solutions. 4) Ways for underperforming employees rationalize their performance There have been multiple ways the employees could undertake to rationalize their performance in an organization. The employees could develop their practice of working and work performance through teamwork. While working in a team, the employees could get multiple opportunities while working in a team. The employees get the opportunity to share knowledge and information. They gain the ability in making decision, solving problems and dealing with difficult situations. In addition, there have been different situations where the employees find it difficult to manage time for the tasks and they end up underperforming. In addition, the management of the company usually provides coaching for the employees who underperform. Based on the information provided in coaching, the employees could identify their weak area and find suitable situations. 5) Three different perspective the managers consider before terminating an employee who underperform Before terminating an employee, the manager of the organization needs to consider a number of things such as considering whether the employee fails unprotected status. For example, the manager needs to consider whether the underperforming or affected employees fail into the category, which is protected by federal laws. The managers of the company need to be aware of the fact that employees are not terminated due to their race, age, citizenship religion, sexual orientation, etc (Shaer, 2013, p.109). On the other side, the managers need to consider possible retaliation allegations. For example, other employees may file complaint regarding work violation, discrimination, etc. In addition, the manager also needs to consider protecting confidential information about the organization and its management as stared by the author. For example, the information could be about employees, clients. It could be harmful for the organization if any employee removes or utilize any information. Lastly, the managers need to confirm whether the affected employee has adequately been paid for the tasks they performed. Shaer (2013, p.160).stated that the company must pay for the tasks performed until last date of terminating. 6) Applying the lessons from the book to my own performance The book fixes them or fire them provided a great assistance to my own career. There are certain lessons with respect to fixing and firing an employee within an organization. The lessons help me to analyze the situation while terminating or retaining an employee. Before firing an employee I would consider the things such as the reason for terminating or retaining and any possible outcome that could affect the organization later. While firing an employee, being a manager of the company I would investigate the reason for his/her poor performance. Based on the reasons, I would implement the necessary steps. For example, if an employee is underperforming due to lack of involvement in meeting, discussion, decision making, then I would provide the assistance required for their improvement. Reference List Shaer, S. (2013). Fix them or fire them.: Challenger Press.

Barons, Magna Carta and King John Essay Example

Barons, Magna Carta and King John Essay Example Barons, Magna Carta and King John Paper Barons, Magna Carta and King John Paper Henry II, one of the most influential’s of England’s government created and improved the judicial system as the laws of the land needed applied. His government gave fair trials to all and granted judges to cross throughout the land to maintain the criminal justice system that he created. After Henry II death Richard his son had succeeded him and maintained that his fathers’ form of government was being followed. However, Richard was not always in England due to the Crusades in the Middle East that he believed was worth fighting and with his absent his barons gained control of the government. Under both Henry II and Richard the barons were able to gain trust from the crown and gain power that had never happened before under any other monarch. When John, Henry II’s youngest son took the thrown he took away a large amount of the baron’s power and increased taxes without having council with his barons. John also took away the form of judicial system his father had created that gave fair trial to all. From these critical laws of government gone or corrupted John’s barons plotted against him and created the Magna Carta which is list of laws that were demanded to restore his father’s government. For the first time in history a monarch was forced to sign and obey laws created by his nobility. The barons wanted to limit John’s power through the Magna Carta. In which the church did have a small influence of the created charter when written. Throughout history many historians have been trying to figure out for what reasons John’s barons created the Magna Carta. Clarie Valente, argues that barons were looking towards John consider the concepts of law and government along with their more personal agendas. However, Sidney Painter states that John was not in the right mental state to take the concepts of the law and enforce them in a way that would benefit not only him, but his barons. Also, Painter concludes that John’s relationship that he destroyed between many close barons that were loyal to him lead them to unite against him and place him within the law. J. A. P. Jones, gives great reasoning that the authority that John had created was against the law from the view point of the barons. John the youngest son of King Henry II succeeded his father’s thrown after his brother Richard’s death in 1199. Even though John was next in line for the thrown, John’s nephew Arthur son of Geoffrey John’s elder brother. Three sets of considerations would play a part in the decision between them- the law of inheritance, the wishes of the barons and great officers of the realm, and the desires of the late king. [1] Both John and Arthur had their own support from their closest barons. England and Normandy accepted John who had been designated by his brother as heir to the whole of his dominions, the barons of Aquitaine rendered their homage to Eleanor, while those of Anjou, Main, and Touraine, in accordance with the custom of the country, swore allegiance to Arthur of Brittany. [2] John was finally recognized at Richards’s heir only by the action of his niece marring Louis son of, Philip king of France and the paying of 20,000 marks for her dowry. When John finally came into power his kingdom had lost Normandy, rumors of him plotting the killing of his nephew Arthur. The story of John murdering Arthur in 1203 and caused speculation among King Philip of France who tried to use this reason to condemn John, however it was too late because John bought out the barons who then clamed John the rightful king of England. Rumors also started to appear that John captured Arthur’s colleagues and starved them to death, while Arthur’s sister appears to have been imprisoned at Bristol until 1241 when she died. [3] Since his kingdom was drained of funds do to Richard’s Crusades which also left the people penniless. John’s first visit to England as chef he demanded the needs of men and money; he summoned his feudal host and ordered the levying of a scutage of two marks per knight’s fee. [4] John started to demand reliefs that sometimes amounted to thousands of pounds. [5] The rise of his few per vassal caused many of his vassals to leave or become treachery against him. If the funds could not be furnished other ways were available to obtain them by the selling of marriages of his heiresses for high prices on a marriage market, but there was no one to deny their tight to dispose of heiresses and there were always eager buyers. 6] Selling of heiresses could not be stopped due to the grounds that could prevent John from the control of his own estate. Jones argues that during the reign of Henry II he created the Angevin machine that was designed so in the absent of the king the sole direction of government affairs could be issued by the Chairman of the Bench and barons with his own wor ds. John Joliffe’s recent study of the Angevin monarchy is that the fundamental policies of the first three Angevin kings must be regarded as a whole. These powerful rulers, he asserts, opposed the older concept of feudal monarchy with a new attitude, difficult to define – kind of â€Å"unrealized absolution which would have exercised all the capacities of the Renaissance prince except that of comprehending its own proper nature and claiming it in set terms. †[7] Joliffe’s reasoning is that during John’s rule the Angevin machine never changed under his rule, but it changed due to the world changing. However there is greater evidence that states that with John’ never-ending activity within government and having to be homebound in England after the loss of Normandy and Anjou in 1203-4, tend to make his rule seem more personal, more tyrannical, more stifling than that of his predecessors. John’s Since John had no place to visit he began to take tours of the country causing him to try to attend to the smallest points of administrative detail resulted in efficiency but also in a general feeling of oppression. Lords that John considered most dangerous to his power were to be weakened by any possible means on the other hand barons that were considered to be most reliable were to be built up. [8] 1203, John turned many of his closest friends into his enemies and his once enemies he gave them handouts to win their loyalty over. His intentions of winning foe barons over created a strain of the relationships and backing that his closest barons once had. Without John having the backing of his once trusted barons and nobles tension increased, furthermore this concern John had with having to win rival barons may perhaps been one of the leading causes to his barons rising up against him and creating the Magna Carta that would limit his power and restore their authority back into the government. Events leading up to the Magna Carta include the feud John had with Pope Innocent III on who should be the new archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent III refused to accept the choices that John had elected for the new archbishop of Canterbury. Due to this dispute Innocent put England under an interdict, however John saw this to be wrong doing and he reopened some monasteries. John’s outlandish action lead to Innocent’s excommunicate of England. John’s barons repeatedly asked John to surrender to Innocents demands so that church services could continue. However, John finally gave into Innocents, but not until 1213 and he reinstates the Canterbury monks and receives Langston as the new archbishop, but not as his friend. [9] During, 1212 John raised taxes on the Barons in the attempt to regain Aquitaine, Poitou and Anjou. 0 July 1213 John renewed his coronation oath with the promise to restore Henry I laws and banish all evil customs; his promise was short lived by 15 November 1213. [10] 1215, John tried to gain power once again with his lost territory in France; however he was once again defeated then forced to pay to acquire a truce with Philip. John’s only way to obtain ? 40,000 was to raise tax es which lead to the barons rebelling. After this few barons remained loyal to John, while others were starting to plot against him. Those who were plotting against him drew up a list of grievances with Archbishop Stephen Langton and presented them to the king on June 15, 1215. The list of injustice, Magna Carta was signed at Runnymede in Surrey and was forced to accept and sign the terms or war was going to be declared against him. Within the Magna Carta there were sixty-three conditions that the twenty-five barons and Archbishop Langston required and forced John to re-establish. From those sixty-three provisions I have chosen several clauses that I see are the most important terms that the barons and the church wanted to have reinstated back into the government. The Church of England â€Å"shall be free, and shall have her rights entire, and her liberties inviolate; and we will that it be thus observed. †[11] Clause 1 explains that the King will stay out of church affairs especially with the elections of new archbishops. The Pope has all rights to elected whom he see fits without the interfering of the King. Also, the barons reasoning for this clause to be fashioned within the charter is to reinsure that excommunication never occurs in England once more. In addition, to the king’s limitation with the Church clause 61 states, â€Å"all quarrels between men who held government positions and clergy were to be forgiven and pardoned. †[12] This meant that all those in the clergy and government positions were to be forgiven be the king himself. Their names and positions would be cleared of all charges. The clergy who had once been dammed by John know can be restored back into the church. Furthermore all those politically excommunicated by John could now come back to England and withhold powerful positions yet again. John’s treasury dry and the wonting need to reclaim Normandy his stupendous scheme to wed of his closest heirs for money caused clause 6 in the Magna Carta to be fashioned. Clause 6 clearly states, â€Å"heirs shall be married without disparagement, yet so that before themarriage takes place the nearest in blood to that heir shall have notice. †[13] If John was to marry of any remanding heirs he was to count the distance between the two that were to be wed. The number between them had to meet current criteria to be allowed to wed. If conditions were not met then they he could go forth with the wedding. The most important clauses for the barons were 12 and 14, stated that John has to take counsel on aids and scutages with a duly-summoned assembly of leading prelates, nobles, and tenants-in-chief. [14] This clause would demand that John had to summon a convention in which his barons, tenants-in-chiefs, and leading prelates would attend once again being involved in decision making, negotiations, and law construction. They would gain the power that they once had when the Angevin machine was established when Normandy was being ruled by Henry II and Richard I. During the reign of his father Henry II, set up permanent court of professional judges and sent them throughout the land on frequent missions, criminal justice was to be administered all over the land in accordance with the same rules. [15] Clause 39 of the Magna Carta states â€Å"No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled or in anyway destroyed nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawfuljudgement of his peers or by the law of the land. †[16] This is stating that King John can’t imprison or exile someone that he wants to without having broken a law and be judged within a court in front of his peers. Historian Clare Valente states within her book The Theory and Practice of Revolt in Medieval England, that clauses 39 and 40 are the utmost important due to the guaranteed free, available, impartial royal justice according to the law of the land. [17] The barons were demanding that John restore the judicial branch that England once had under the rule of his father. Also, with in the Magna Carta clause 52 states that all those who had been exiled without a lawful judgment was removed from exile and his rights were fully restored. 18] King John had removed the law system that his father and fore fathers had established that guided and helped their government develop. Instead of having the positions of law enforcements being held by those who had been educated and trained in the field, John replaced them with his close piers and those that he could trust to ensure that his ruling was going to be enforced throughout his real. The gratuitous concessions of Magna Carta, limited thought the y were, came to be seen as offering a more general guarantee for local liberties, to be enforced, exploited and misinterpreted in their defence. 19] The barons who under the rule of Richard had withheld power do to the invention of the angevin machine that was created by Henry II that was designed in the absent of the king the king’s alter ego who had sole direction of the government affairs and could issue chancery writs in his own name. [20] Under this concept the barons gained outstanding amount of power. During John’s rule their power had been eliminated and they believed that it was their born right to have the feudal principle that vassal should give â€Å"aid and counsel† to his lord. 21] With their rights and power taken the creation of the Magna Carta was away to try to re-establish their rights. â€Å"All foreign knights and soldiers were thrown out of the country do to the belief that they were living in England to corrupt the government†. [22] This clause was cruel to the barons, who believed that these foreigners were taking over England and influencing their lords over all decisions In addition with the nationality clause, With John agreeing to the terms of the Magna Carta, he was subjected to abide by each law. If any laws were broken then they would have all rights to revolt against him once again. As quoted by ‘The Twenty-five Barons of Magna Carta,’ by C. R. Cheney: If the king of his officials violated anything in the charter or failed to do extension of judicial distraint, to obey him and attack his property until he reconfirmed his promises and restored justice, at which point normal relations would resume. [23] It is clearly stated that if John or any of his nobility that followed him were to break the law in anyway, his property not him would be attacked. Within the clause itself it states that the twenty-five barons and the whole community have the right to seize their castles, lands, and possessions in anyway that they can until the situation has been obtained and meets their demands. The Magna Carta first set of laws that a monarch was forced to sign and accept to follow under his own barons. John had created a corrupted government by taking away power that was given to his barons from his father and brothers rule due to their absent and the invention of the Angevin machine. The barons were allied with Archbishop Langston who also believed that John’s ruling was in the wrong and that he should not be able to have any influence in the Church’s decisions. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. PRIMARY SOURCES White, Albert Beebe and Notestein, Wallace. Magna Carta 1215. Edited by Source Problems in English History. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1915. II. SECONDARY SOURCES A. Books Cheney, C. R. , The Twenty-five Barons of Magna Carta. Bulletin of the John Rayland’s Library, 50 (1967-68). Goodhart, Arthur L. Law of the land. Charlottesville VA: The University Press of Virginia, 1966. Holt, J. C. Magna Carta. Cambridge: University Press, 1965. Joliffe, John. Angevin Kingship. London, A. C. Black, 1963. Jones, J. A. P. King John and Magna Carta. London: Longman, 1971. Painter, Sidney. The Reign Of King John. NY: Arno Press, 1949. Poole, Austin L. From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087-1216. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951. Valente, Claire. The Theory and Practice of Revolt in Medieval England. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003. B. Journal Articles Maddicott, J. R. Magna Carta and the Local Community 1215-1259. † Past Present 102 (February, 1984):30. Stuart, William A. â€Å"The Constitutional Clauses of Magna Carta. † Virginia Law Review2:8 (May, 1915):567. [1] Sidney Painter, The Reign of King John (New York: Arno Press, 1949), 1. [2] Austin Poole, From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087-1216 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951), 378. [3] J. A. P. Jones, King John and Magna Carta (London: Longman, 1971), 8. [4] Painter, 16. [5] J. C. Holt, Magna Carta (Cambridge, University Press, 1965), 24. [6] Ibid. 7] John Joliffe, Angevin Kingship (London, A. C. Black, 1963), 341. [8] Painter, 24. [9] Sir. James H. Ramsay, The Angevin Empire of the Three Reigns of Henry II, Richard I, and John (A. D. 1154-1216) (New York: AMS Press, 1978), 417. [10] Jones, 46. [11] Albert Beebe White and Wallace Notestein, Magna Carta (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1915), Clause 1. [12] Ibid. , Clause 61. [13] White and Wallace Notestein, Clause 6. [14] Claire Valente, The Theory and Practice of Revolt in Medieval England (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2003), 26-27. 15] Goodhart, 9. [16] White and Wallace Notestein, Clause 39. [17]Valente, 26. [18] Ibid. , Clause 52. [19] J. R. Maddicott, â€Å"Magna Carta and the Local Community 1215-1259. † Past Present 102, (Feb. 1984): 30. [20] Jones, 4. [21] William A. Stuart, â€Å"The Constitutional Clauses of Magna Carta. † Virginia Law Review 2:8 (1915): 567. [22]White and Notestein,. Clause 51. [23] C. R. Cheney, The Twenty-five Barons of Magna Carta (Bulletin of the John Rayland’s Library, 50 (1967-68) 307.

Food Security †Living in Hunger

Food Security – Living in Hunger Free Online Research Papers Food security describes a situation in which a human being does not have to live in hunger or fear starvation. According to the (1996 World Food Summit) food security exists when every person has physical and economic access at all times to healthy and nutritious food in sufficient quantity to cover the needs of their daily ration and food preferences in order to live a healthy and active life. As a concept it can be applied at many levels: global, national, household and individual. World-wide around 852 million men, women and children are frequently hungry due to extreme poverty; while up to 2 billion people lack food security due to varying degrees of poverty.(FAO2003). Food consumption levels reflect on poverty, families that don’t suffer from chronic hunger are the ones with financial resources, while the ones that suffer most are the ones without any financial resources and are also that part of the population that will be affected most in case of food shortages or famine. Food insecurity can be categorized either as chronic or transitory. Chronic food insecurity translates into a high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger, ensuring food security presupposes elimination of that vulnerability. Chronic hunger is not famine, it is similar to under nourishment and is related to poverty, it exists mainly in poor countries. Food security as an issue became prominent in the 1970s and has been a topic of considerable attention since then, thirty definitions of it have been identified by Maxwell and Frankenberger (1992). Originally there was a tendency to understand the issue of food security only from a supply point of view. In 1979 the World Food Programme Report conceptualized food security, equating it with an assurance of supplies and a balanced supply-demand situation of stable foods in the international market. The report also emphasized that increasing food production in the developing countries would be the basis on which to build their food security. This would mean that the monitoring by famine early warning systems for food insecurity should focus on the availability of food in the world marketplace and on the food production systems of developing countries. However, global food availability does not ensure food security to any particular country because what is available in the world market (o r the surplus in the US or Canada) cannot be accessed by famine-affected people in African countries, as the economies of these countries, in general, cannot generate the foreign currency needed to purchase food from the world market. Three-quarters of the world’s poor and hungry are located in rural areas. These people depend directly and indirectly on agriculture and agriculture-related activities for their food and income. USAID proposed several key steps to increasing agricultural productivity which is in turn key to increasing rural income and reducing food insecurity. These key steps include: Boosting agricultural science and technology. Rising agricultural productivity drives economic growth. Improved agricultural technology is a key component for boosting productivity. This includes support to agricultural research and support to the application of improved technologies and practices. Developing domestic market and international trade opportunities. Expanding farmers’ commercial opportunities is critical for ensuring adequate returns. This includes improving domestic markets and international trade opportunities. Improving policy frameworks. Only with sound policies in place can domestic and foreign private investment and development assistance catalyze growth by helping people solve the problems that all too often keep them poor and food insecure. Securing property rights and access to finance. Asset distribution shapes broad-based progress because it determines the impact of the economic benefits. Asset distribution also contributes to empowerment, hence participation and ownership, by the larger proportion of the rural population. Protecting the vulnerable. Conflict prevention and resolution mechanisms and democracy and governance based on principles of accountability and transparency in public institutions and the rule of law are basic to reducing vulnerability in the short term and eliminate conditions that create vulnerability over the long term. Enhancing human capital. Better education and improved health contribute to greater scientific capacity, more productive farmers, and better decision-makers over a range of economic and non-economic activities. The agriculture, hunger, poverty nexus is also a very important link involved into ensuring food security, utterly removing hunger and poverty requires an understanding of the ways in which these two injustices interconnect. Hunger, and the malnourishment that accompanies it, prevents poor people from escaping poverty because it reduces their ability to learn, work, and care for themselves and their family members. If left unaddressed, hunger sets in motion an array of outcomes that prolongs malnutrition, reduces the ability of adults to work and to give birth to healthy children, and erodes childrens ability to learn and lead productive, healthy, and happy lives. This shortage of human development undermines a countrys potential for economic development for generations to come. Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, eradicating extreme hunger and poverty depends on agriculture the most. Millennium development goal’s one calls for halving hunger and poverty by 2015 in relation to 1990 and also halve the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day between this same period. Another method of achieving food security is the ‘‘Special Programme for Food Security.’’(SPFS) This is Food and Agricultures Organization’s flagship into achieving the above goals which is adopted by 105 countries today with donations of up to $800 million dollars. It assists countries, particularly but not exclusively Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs), to improve food security within poor households through National Food Security Programmes (NFSPs) and Regional Programmes for Food Security (RFSPs). Their most current goal after an independent evaluation in 2002 is to move away from their exclusive focus on raising agricultural output, to finding ways to improve poor peoples access to food. New directions include locally supplied school meals, food for work schemes and capacity-building activities to improve agriculture, aquaculture, agroprocessing, animal health and irrigation techniques. It is also replacing the earlier trend for smal l-scale pilot projects with National Food Security Programmes which address the needs of a country as a whole in a more holistic and comprehensive way. Bibliography A global view of food security. Agriculture + Rural Development Singer, H. W. (1997). Agriculture, food security, nutrition and the Millennium Development Goals Von Braun, Joachim; Swami Nathan, M. S.; Rosegrant, Mark W. World Bank. World Development Report 2000/2001: AttackingPoverty. Oxford University Press, 2000. worldbank.org/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations fao.org An Active Learning Approach to Teaching About World Hunger MATTHEW KRAIN and CHRISTINA J. SHADLE. (2006) US AID usaid.gov/index.html World Food Summit fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm Household food security: concepts, indicators, and measurements: a technical review. New York, NY, USA and Rome, UNICEF and IFAD. Maxwell, S. Frankenberger,1992. Research Papers on Food Security - Living in HungerGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropePETSTEL analysis of IndiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductDefinition of Export QuotasLifes What IfsThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided Era

How have transnational NGOs and social movements impacted countries Term Paper

How have transnational NGOs and social movements impacted countries that practice female circumcision - Term Paper Example According to the World Health Organization, approximately 140 million girls have been circumcised all over the globe, of which about 92 million are believed to be from Africa. (Female Genital Mutilation, World Health Organization, February 2012). The origin of female circumcision is not known for sure, however some scholars on the subject speculate that this practice has its origins in the time of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. This belief is corroborated by the fact that some ancient Egyptian female mummies were found to be circumcised. In today’s times female circumcision is commonly practiced in many parts of Africa. This practice is promoted in three ways by the people who propagate it. The Sunna type where the clitoris is excised, the clitoridectomy  type where the clitoris and minor labia are excised and the infibulations type where the whole clitoris and all the labia are cut off. (M. A. Dirie and G. Lindmark, 1992). The practice has however, been reinforced by Islami c tradition due to the belief that circumcising women dampens their sexual desire and leads to less promiscuous behavior generally. (Asaad M.B, 1980). Countries and cultures that advocate the practice believe that performing the procedure tunes down a woman’s libido. The opposition for female circumcision presents a strong case. ... According to the World Health Organization, female circumcision has no health benefits what so ever and is only a cause of damage. It is apparent with simple deduction that since the practice removes healthy female genital tissue for no medical reason; it will interfere with their normal bodily functions in addition to being the host of a bunch of diseases and infections. There can be instantaneous consequences like pain, shock, hemorrhage or tetanus etcetera or long term consequences which might include bladder and urinary tract infections, cysts, infertility and child birth complications etcetera (Female Genital Mutilation, World Health Organization, February 2012). However, debates regarding this issue are messy because of the cultural, religious, social and political connections to the issue of female circumcision on the side of the advocates of this procedure and thus, reaching a solution is a very complex course of action. The medical views on female circumcision are shrouded w ith confusion because they don’t understand the reason why people do it if it has such dangerous health implications. What needs to be done is that people should look at this practice through a cultural lens to understand its significance and why it means so much to the cultures and people who practice it. Firstly, they look upon this as a necessity according to what their beliefs have taught them. Second, this practice has different meanings for different cultures and people, third, although people who are against this practice to promote gender equality the women it is practiced upon don’t think of it as an infringement of their rights. Although this practice originated from the patriarchal society, it is women that have ensured that it keep being practiced to date.

Critical discussion of verbal and non-verbal communication Essay

Critical discussion of verbal and non-verbal communication - Essay Example Poor communication constantly occurs in hospitals and is believed to be responsible for a majority of hospitals treatment errors that cause death to many patients (Harrison and Hart, 2006). These communication breakdowns are likely to occur at specific points especially when breaking news to patients regarding their health, when doctors are being informed by nurses about patients’ health, when there is a medical emergency that requires quick treatment and during diagnosis and prescription of treatment. Various reasons have been found to lead to these lapses of communication that leads to wrong diagnosis and treatment as well as patients not being informed of their condition properly (Shives, 2008). Poor communication in hospitals has occurred frequently due to a lack of proper hospital policy in place to ensure that there is a basic protocol followed in the general treatment, resulting to nurses using different methods of treating. These errors could occur during discharge pro cedures as well as the report methods used during admission of emergency cases (Minott, 2008), as both nurses and doctors use different standards of measurement in report filling, making prescriptions and document handling, errors of interpretation are likely to occur. ... Hence, a mental model framework is imperative for the comprehension of verbal and non-verbal cues as well as for staff to share meaning and be able to develop common knowledge (Davidson and Blackman, n.d.). Lack of rules for face-to-face or any other verbal communication such as via telephone could also result in communication barriers forming during treatment especially while changing shifts. Different patients will respond differently to the rapport used by medical staff and although it is difficult to find a universal tone of conversation to use in conversation, it must be noted that it can result in patience feeling uncomfortable communicating as well as shutting down due to a feeling of disrespect or prying by the doctor. The use of vague language and unclear syntactic and pragmatics will also result in the misdiagnosis of patients and the inability of fellow staff members comprehending the sincerity of the patients’ illness (Byrne and Byrne 1992; Morrissey and Callaghan, 2011). A differing opinion on what is necessary and what is not is a serious impediment to effective communication between both patient-staff and staff-staff briefing. This is because different opinions have often led to scenarios where vital patient information about welfare is left out as either the patient or the nurses available feel that it is not necessary to explain some details especially if the affected area is very private or if it appears that they are healing and do not want to seem petty. This is more common during oral communication and emergency treatments than when viewing their chart files as different people will have various thoughts on what is important and what is not and information can be forgotten or left out. Infrequent communication by